According to Brown & Green (2006) instructional design can be viewed as a process, discipline, science, and a reality. Basically, instructional design is "the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction" (Brown & Green, 2006, p.7). It incorporates the analysis of learning needs and goals. In addition, it requires looking at the mode of instruction and desired learning activities. A quality instructional designer looks at the individual needs of the learner and develops attainable goals to suit those needs. Then, she aligns systematic instruction to meet those goals. Finally, instructional design requires adequate evaluation of learners, in order determine understanding of given tasks.
Several different models of instructional design exist. Here is a brief sampling of a few of these models and their basic assertions:
Dick and Carey’s Systems Approach Model
The systems approach model for designing instruction was created by theorists Walter Dick and Lou Carey. It is backed by the conditioning theory that a stimulus provokes a response in a learner. It asserts that an instructor must select a set of skills to be mastered, and then create appropriate conditions to learn the targeted skills. This model relies on administering formative assessments to guide instruction along the way, and revision of materials based on the results of these assessments. The model is based on the assumption that learner behaviors are predictable, so its limitation is the unpredictability of behavior. http://www.gse.pku.edu.cn/jxsj/materials2/Dick%20&%20Carey.htm
Kemp Design Model
The Kemp design model, developed by Jerold Kemp, includes nine important steps, such as: “state instructional objectives for the learner” and “develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.” However, this design allows for some flexibility, because it does not require that the steps are done in any particular sequence. This cyclical plan allows for continual planning, assessing, and revising of the instructional design. I like this model because it is all-encompassing of the factors that surround the successful design of instruction, including: “subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, and resources.” http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model
Iterative Design—The Spiral Model
Although the Spiral Model, designed by Barry Boehm, was originally created for developing and enhancing software programs, I thought it also applied to designing instruction for the classroom. The model has been simplified into five basic steps: define, design, demonstrate, develop, and deliver. All of these levels focus on the desired end results of the learning experience. Unlike the Systems Model Approach, it takes into consideration the “inevitable changes to the learning experience that will happen over the course of design and delivery.” http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/spiral_model.html
Understanding by Design or Backward Design
Understanding by Design (UbD) is a "framework for designing curriculum units, performance assessments, and instruction that lead your students to deep understanding of the content you teach.” Using backward design, the teacher starts with the desired student outcomes and works backward to determine classroom goals and objectives. I used this method to complete a UbD for a graduate-level technology class, and liked the idea of students constructing understanding through activities and problem-solving experiences. I also find value in developing an assessment tool and then using it to guide student learning. As the article mentions, “teaching to the test” rather than “teaching the test” is a valuable role of the teacher. http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/backward_design.html
Hannafin and Peck Design Model
The Hannafin and Peck Design Model incorporates three phases, including: a needs assessment, design, and development/implementation. In the first stage, the designer determines the goals and objectives of the lesson or unit. The second stage uses the needs analysis to develop appropriate instruction. In the third and final stage the instructor executes the plan. Throughout each phase, the teacher evaluates and revises the instruction. I appreciate the simplicity of this final model. http://adultlearnandtech.com/hannafin.htm
I: Statement of Purpose
Instructional design is performed "to bring about a particular change" (Brown & Green, 2006, p.88). Therefore, the statement of purpose designates the desired change to take place. In general terms, the statement of purpose outlines the desired result of instructional design.
Examples:
- This instruction will enable a healthy adult to perform basic yoga positions.
- This instruction will allow a fourth grader to create a variety of electrical circuits.
- This instruction will enable an active youth to run a 5K.
Hints:
The statement of purpose needs to be broad enough to encompass several tasks. However, it should not be so broad that the instruction is unmanageable.
II: Needs Analysis
According to Brown & Green (2006) a needs analysis is the process of "identifying the change that is requested and the variables surrounding this change" (p.88). It is an important step in the process of instructional design, because it will help the instructional designer determine whether or not instruction is needed.
Hints: In an effort to save time, the needs analysis can sometimes be overlooked. However, valuable time can be saved by determining whether or not instruction in a particular area is even warranted. Then, instructional time can be spent wisely in only the necessary endeavors.
Hints: In an effort to save time, the needs analysis can sometimes be overlooked. However, valuable time can be saved by determining whether or not instruction in a particular area is even warranted. Then, instructional time can be spent wisely in only the necessary endeavors.
III: Task Analysis
Brown & Green (2006) explain that the task analysis "provides important information about the content and tasks that will form the basis for the instruction being developed" (p.106). This step includes gathering information on the type of activities that will make up the instruction. In addition, the instructional designer must determine the appropriate sequence for teaching these activities.
Many different task analysis approaches exist. Here is a brief list of approaches:
Many different task analysis approaches exist. Here is a brief list of approaches:
- Jonassen, Hannum, and Tessmer's Approach
- Morrison, Ross, and Kemp's Three Techniques
- Dick, Carey, and Carey's Instructional Analysis
- Smith and Ragan's Analysis of the Learning Task
An instructional designer should determine the effectiveness of the recommended tasks and modify them if necessary.
Hints:
A subject matter expert (SME) is helpful when developing a task analysis. He/She "[provides] guidance on the scope and sequence of the content and tasks that need to be included in the instruction" (Brown & Green, 2006, p.117). In an educational setting, this might be a veteran teacher or an expert from a particular field. It might even involve communicating with an online SME.
It is easier to change tasks at this phase, than to modify them later in the instructional design process, so I would recommend spending ample time completing the task analysis.
IV: Learner Analysis
According to Brown & Green (2006) learner analysis is meant to "determine the learner's approach to the instruction, including their prerequisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward the task" (p.122). Instruction will look different based on the specific needs of the learners, so instruction designers need to specify these needs.
A basic starting point for learner analysis is explained in Maslow's hierarcy, which explains how basic needs must first be met before learning is possible. For instance, learners must feel safe and secure. Basic human needs of hunger and thirst must also be addressed. Next, students are looking for "approval and recognition" from their peers and the instructor. With these needs in place, one can be expected to fulfill mental health, including: knowing, understanding, and exploring. Only after these needs have been met, can students be expected to meet their full learning potential, extending to their spiritual health.
The similarities and differences of the learners can be evaluated. Mager (1997) describes a variety of characteristics worthy of analyzing, including:
Hints:
Consider an "average" learner from the audience. Use this benchmark for making overall instructional decisions. Then use traits of individuals to fine-tune the instructional design to meet the specific needs of the audience.
A basic starting point for learner analysis is explained in Maslow's hierarcy, which explains how basic needs must first be met before learning is possible. For instance, learners must feel safe and secure. Basic human needs of hunger and thirst must also be addressed. Next, students are looking for "approval and recognition" from their peers and the instructor. With these needs in place, one can be expected to fulfill mental health, including: knowing, understanding, and exploring. Only after these needs have been met, can students be expected to meet their full learning potential, extending to their spiritual health.
The similarities and differences of the learners can be evaluated. Mager (1997) describes a variety of characteristics worthy of analyzing, including:
- Age range
- Sex distribution
- Nature and range of educational background
- Reason(s) for attending the course
- Attitude(s) about course attendance
- Basis, prejudice and beliefs
- Typical hobbies and other spare time activities
- Interests in life other than hobbies
- Need-gratifiers (rewards that would work)
- Physical characteristics
- Reading abilities
- Terminology or topics to be avoided
- Organizational membership
- Specific prerequisite and entry level skills already learned
Hints:
Consider an "average" learner from the audience. Use this benchmark for making overall instructional decisions. Then use traits of individuals to fine-tune the instructional design to meet the specific needs of the audience.
V: Objectives
Instructional objectives differ from goals. While a goal is a broad statement of the designed outcome of a lesson, an objective gives specific steps to define what a learner should know and be able to do as a result of the instruction.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Objectives should be written using a variety of learning domains. Initial learning objectives should use lower level skills, with subsequent objectives building on those basics. Eventually, students should be asked to use higher-level thinking skills. Below is a list of the steps of Bloom's taxonomy and some sample verbs to use as part of the learning objectives.
It is sometimes easier to think of objectives as learning targets. Each objective is a target that students should learn as a result of the learning tasks. For even more personalized instruction, learning targets should be written as "I can" statements. Students can even monitor their own progress of their ability to perform each learning target, prior to summative assessment. With the implementation of learning targets, it is often unnecessary to provide additional test review and study guides, because students are already aware of exactly what they will be expected to do on the test.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Objectives should be written using a variety of learning domains. Initial learning objectives should use lower level skills, with subsequent objectives building on those basics. Eventually, students should be asked to use higher-level thinking skills. Below is a list of the steps of Bloom's taxonomy and some sample verbs to use as part of the learning objectives.
- Knowledge: identify, label, list, match, define
- Comprehension: demonstrate, illustrate, summarize, explain
- Application: choose, select, show, apply, produce
- Analysis: distinguish, compare, contrast, research, analyze
- Synthesis: compose, construct, create, design, develop
- Evaluation: justify, evaluate, prioritize, argue, decide
It is sometimes easier to think of objectives as learning targets. Each objective is a target that students should learn as a result of the learning tasks. For even more personalized instruction, learning targets should be written as "I can" statements. Students can even monitor their own progress of their ability to perform each learning target, prior to summative assessment. With the implementation of learning targets, it is often unnecessary to provide additional test review and study guides, because students are already aware of exactly what they will be expected to do on the test.
VI: Design
The design phase is the fun part of instructional design. During this step, the instructional designer choosing the activities that will help a learner attain each of the learning objectives. The designer has the freedom to use creativity to choose tasks that will be valuable, yet still engaging for the learners.
Hints:
These activities should include a variety of learning modes to reach the needs of all students.
Hints:
These activities should include a variety of learning modes to reach the needs of all students.
VII: Evaluation
According to Brown & Green (2006) "evaluation refers to the process for determining the success level of an individual or a product" (p.207). This step requires a certain level of data-keeping to assess student understanding. Data can be qualitative or quantitative dependent upon the desired learning outcome. For instance, a performance task may be evaluated based on a rubric that describes wanted behaviors, while a knowledge-level task might be assessed using a multiple-choice paper and pencil test. The type of assessment should be directly linked to the format of the tested objectives. Based on the outcomes of these assessments, the instructor makes decisions on how to proceed.
Evaluation can come in two basic forms: formative and summative.
Formative Assessment:
Also known as assessment for learning (AFL), formative assessments are meant to monitor the progress of the learners throughout the learning process. AFL gives an instructor feedback about the changing needs of the students in the class. At different points along the way, AFL can tell the instructor when the pacing needs to change, speeding through objectives that the learners have already mastered, and slowing down on tasks that require more support.
Summative Assessment:
Also known as assessment of learning (AOL), summative assessments are meant to evaluate a learner's understanding of the subject matter. AOL is administered at the end of a unit to determine if students mastered the content. Typically, AOL is used to determine an end-of-unit grade.
Hints:
Quality instructional design incorporates both forms of assessment. While it is nice to have a summative piece to determine a grade, formative assessments can also help to monitor progress along the way. Consider administering multiple formative assessments throughout the instructional design process for best results.
Evaluation can come in two basic forms: formative and summative.
Formative Assessment:
Also known as assessment for learning (AFL), formative assessments are meant to monitor the progress of the learners throughout the learning process. AFL gives an instructor feedback about the changing needs of the students in the class. At different points along the way, AFL can tell the instructor when the pacing needs to change, speeding through objectives that the learners have already mastered, and slowing down on tasks that require more support.
Summative Assessment:
Also known as assessment of learning (AOL), summative assessments are meant to evaluate a learner's understanding of the subject matter. AOL is administered at the end of a unit to determine if students mastered the content. Typically, AOL is used to determine an end-of-unit grade.
Hints:
Quality instructional design incorporates both forms of assessment. While it is nice to have a summative piece to determine a grade, formative assessments can also help to monitor progress along the way. Consider administering multiple formative assessments throughout the instructional design process for best results.
Conclusion
Following these basic steps of instructional design, paying close attention to the expert hints, you should be able to successfully design appropriate and meaningful instruction.
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